Jesuits

The label Jesuit is a common one applied to the Society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic order founded by Ignatius of Loyola in the 16th century as part of the wider Catholic Counter-Reformation. The motto of the Jesuits is Ad majorem Dei gloriam ("to the greater glory of God"), and their primary goal is to expand the Roman Catholic Church through preaching and teaching. As a result, education has always been its primary activity.

For the Jesuits, the pursuit of education has not just been a matter of scholarship, but also of combatting heresy. By founding schools at various levels, Jesuit members are able to carefully control the content of the curriculum and the content of the books used. The Jesuits certainly encouraged thinking in their schools, but only for the purpose of drawing closer to God and Church doctrine.

For Jesuits, obedience to Church doctrine is paramount. A member is permitted to doubt, of course, but only express those doubts and disagreements in private. A Jesuit seeks to increase his spiritual discipline in order to ensure his life is dedicated to serving God and the Church.

Jesuit schools spread across Europe and were instrumental in preventing a number of regions from becoming Protestant. By 1640 they had more than 500 colleges throughout Europe - after another century, the number reached 650 in addition to partial or total control of around two dozen different universities.

Their fierce dedication to the Church has lead to a great deal of prejudice against them, especially from nationalistic leaders. Many Jesuits been expelled from various countries over the years. In 1773, Pope Clement XIV briefly suppressed the order because of opposition to them. They were not revived again until 1814 by Pope Pius VII, something which was made easier by the fact that King Frederick II of Prussia and Empress Catherine II of Russia refused to aid in the earlier suppression, allowing the Jesuits to survive on a local basis.
 

Franciscans

The Franciscans are one of the principle monastic orders of the Roman Catholic Church. They were founded by St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226). Francis came from a wealthy family, but he gave it all up to live a life of extreme poverty and hardship by following the gospel example of Jesus as literally and closely as he possibly could. He later became an important figure among any who valued nature or the environment because he tried to live as a "brother" with all of creation -calling animals, the moon, and even fire itself his "brother."

The Franciscan order has generally been characterized by rigid proverty and the collective ownership of very few material possessions. But even in Francis' lifetime there was a tension between the ideal of life of poverty and the practical realities which required some form of material stability. Following the ideal of poverty may be possible for a couple of individuals, but not for an institution - and his followers were becoming an institution.

Francis became the first person recorded to experience stigmata - mystially produced wounds which mirrored the same wounds suffered by Christ while being crucified.

One of the well-known Franciscan theologians was Saint Bonaventure (c. 1217-74). Originally born Giovanni di Fidanza, he entered the Franciscan order in 1238 or 1243. Like his contemporary Thomas Aquinas, he worked to integrate Aristotle's works with traditional Christian faith. In the 16th century, Bonaventure was declared a Doctor of the Church because of the importance of his works.
 

Spiritual Franciscans

One group, originally known as Zelanti and then latter simply called the "Spirituals" objected to the growing worldliness of the order and insisted upon unequivocal obedience to the original rule created by Francis - particularly the principles of absolute poverty and not owning any property.

Because the authorities of the Franciscan order did not accept ideas, they asked different popes to mediate the dispute. Spirituals tried to ask to be separated and allowed to create their own, new order - but the popes refused and condemned those who refused to obey their superiors. In 1317, Pope John I had a number of them turned over to the Inquisition which burned four.

In 1322 on chapter of the Fanciscan order declared that it was a valid theological opinion to believe that Jesus Christ and the Apostles did not own anything of their own, a position which was not exactly that of the Spirituals but which was very close nevertheless. John I denounced this move and issued a bull declaring that officials in the Church had a right to own poperty and that the Apostles did indeed own their own personal possessions.


Marianists

The Society of Mary is a Catholic religious congregation of brothers and priests called the Marianists or Marianist Brothers and Priests. The Society was founded by Blessed William Joseph Chaminade, a priest who survived the persecutions of Catholics during the French Revolution. The Society is one of the four branches of the Marianist Family. Along with the other branches, the Marianist Brothers and Priests look to Mary as a model for faith and spirituality, and they feel that the best ways to live a spiritual life are to share their faith with others, work with the poor, and educate and nourish the mind, the body, and the soul.

Marianists can be classified as priests, teaching brothers, or working brothers, but, regardless of classification, most members of the order work in schools or programs for young people. In all of their educational institutions, the Characteristics of Marianist Education guide the curriculum. These five characteristics are:

To educate for formation in faith
To provide an integral, quality education
To educate in family spirit
To educate for service, justice, and peace
To educate for adaptation and change.