The Ballad of Mulan (木蘭辭)

The Ballad of Mulan is the oldest known version of Mulan’s story. Most likely composed during the era of Northern Wei (around 400 AD), this one poem ended up inspiring countless retellings for centuries to come.

This copy of the Ballad was penned by Song dynasty calligrapher Mi Fu in 1094 AD (Public domain).

MULAN Image

Because the Ballad of Mulan is an anonymous and undated work, very little can be said about it with certainty. It most likely began as oral tradition, and was passed down for over a century until it was finally preserved in written form during the Tang dynasty.

The version which was finally put into writing begins with Mulan sitting in front of her loom, weeping over the fact that her father has just received his conscription orders. Because Mulan has no elder brother, she is resolved to take her father’s place. Upon returning, she is offered a prominent position but turns it down; her only request is that she be sent home to her family.

After Mulan is reunited with her parents and she has resumed her feminine appearance, her comrades are shocked to discover that she is a woman—for the twelve years that they fought together, none of them had suspected anything. The Ballad concludes by commenting, “When a pair of rabbits run side by side, who can distinguish male from female?”

The final line stands in stark contrast against China’s patriarchal culture. This seems to support the notion that the Ballad of Mulan was written during the era of Northern Wei, when Confucian values temporarily lost their sway over Chinese thought.

Although most modern historians assume that the Ballad of Mulan is a work of fiction, it was not until recent times that the historicity of Mulan began to be questioned. Previously, the story of Mulan was assumed to be a real historical event. A memorial dedicated to Mulan during the Yuan dynasty explicitly mentions the Ballad of Mulan and cites it as a historical document. During the Ming Dynasty, a number of historians became increasingly interested in Mulan’s story (see The Legend of Mulan During the Ming Dynasty).

Nevertheless, the arguments that cast doubt upon the historicity of Mulan’s story are weighty. The historical documents which insist that Mulan was a real person propose contradictory accounts of her life. Each historian offers a different set of details about her family, the time in which she lived, and the enemy against whom she fought. Because no one historical account has emerged as the authoritative record of her life, the majority of modern historians have decided to reject all of these so-called historical documents and conclude that the authenticity of Mulan’s story cannot be verified.

English Paraphrase

For an English translation, please see Wikisource or Asia for Educators.

The sound of creaking.
Mulan sits in the doorway in front of her loom.

When the loom grows silent,
We can only hear the sound of her sighs.

Girl, who are you thinking about?
Girl… who do you long for?

(Mulan replies)
“There is only one man I think about
There is only one man I long for

Last night I saw the conscription notice,
The Khan is issuing a great draft –

A dozen volumes of battle rolls,
Each one with my father’s name.

My father has no son old enough to take his place,
I, Mulan, have no elder brother.

I’m willing to buy a horse and saddle,
I will take my father’s place in battle.”

She buys a fine steed at the east market;
A saddle and blanket at the west market;

A bridle at the south market;
And a long whip at the north market.

At dawn, she leaves her parents’ home
and camps beside the Yellow River before dusk.

From far away, she cannot hear the sounds of her parents calling for her
Only the rushing waters of the Yellow River.

She leaves the Yellow River at dawn,
And reaches reach Black Mountain before dusk.

From far away, she cannot hear the sounds of her parents calling for her
Only the cries of the enemy cavalry in the Yàn hills.

She traveled ten thousand li,
She flew over mountains and through mountain passes

The sound of a war gong pierces the air,
The winter sun shines brightly on her coat of steel.

The general dead after a hundred battles,
The warriors return after ten years.

They return to see the Son of Heaven,
Sitting in the royal court

He unrolls the scroll of merit a dozen times
Giving rewards to hundreds and thousands of men

The Khan asks Mulan what she desires

(Mulan replies)
I have no need to be promoted to a prominent position

I only ask for a camel that can travel a thousand li
That can take me back to my hometown

Her parents hear that their daughter has returned,
They welcome her at the entrance to the town.

When Elder Sister hears of Mulan’s return,
she stands in the doorway wearing a beautiful dress

When Little Brother hears that his sister has returned,
He sharpens his knife to slaughter a pig and a lamb.

(Mulan speaks)
“I open the door to my eastern chamber,
And sit on the bed of my western chamber.

I take off my military robes
And put on my old clothes.

I sit in front of the window as I comb my long flowing hair
And look into the mirror as I apply makeup

I go outside to see my comrades
They are all shocked and astounded.

“We traveled together for twelve years,” (they say),
“But we never suspected that Mulan was a woman!”

Most people tell the gender of a rabbit by its movement:
The male runs quickly, while the female often keeps her eyes shut.

But when the two rabbits run side by side,
Can you really discern whether I am a he or a she?

Original Chinese text

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